En algunos de nuestros Talleres, Cursos y Seminarios es frecuente que surjan preguntas de participantes que ocupan posiciones directivas y ejecutivas en corporaciones como asimismo de propietarios – empresarios, que se relacionan con tratar de “descubrir” cuales son los aspectos claves que deben tenerse en cuenta para maximizar la eficiencia organizacional.
Para ello tratamos de introducirlos en los esquemas que tradicionalmente usan los investigadores y académicos dentro de las Ciencias del Comportamiento en las Organizaciones, que también intentan encontrar descubrimientos donde:
- Se validan las hipótesis de otros investigadores, practitioners y académicos “anteriores”,
- Se trata de encontrar que validez puede llegar a tener una hipótesis “nueva” que ellos se han dedicado a investigar.
Bajo ambas propuestas es necesario que la persona que tiene este tipo de curiosidad pueda definir claramente que es lo más relevante en lo cual está interesado.
Un directivo corporativo puede estar interesado en aumentar la utilidad de la empresa y que ésta se vea reflejada en dividendos para los accionistas, y puede ser que otro directivo – incluso dentro del mismo sector industrial – privilegie el desarrollo de una vigorosa cultura empresarial / organizacional. Estas dos variables distintas que le interesan a éstos directivos representan lo que denominamos “variables dependientes”.
Es importante tener en cuenta que en el transcurso de la vida de una empresa, posiblemente los directivos tengan que privilegiar a estas dos variables en dos momentos distintos; incluso pueden aparecer otras variables dependientes como por ejemplo “la porción del mercado” que tiene la empresa respecto de uno o varios de sus productos.
Ahora bien, el hecho de definir claramente la variable dependiente es parte del trabajo y el “descubrimiento” importante para estos directivos y empresarios – propietarios tiene que ver con qué es lo que causa o provoca cambios en esa variable dependiente que se ha elegido.
¿Que es lo que queremos decir con esto? Debemos tener en cuenta ahora otras nuevas variables las cuales asumimos impactan de alguna manera en nuestra variable dependiente elegida. Estas variables que – supuestamente tienen una relación causal con la variable dependiente – reciben el nombre de “variables independientes”.
Por ejemplo, en el caso de la elección de la variable dependiente a que hemos hecho mención más arriba (aumentar la utilidad de la empresas y el pago de dividendos a los accionistas), posiblemente el foco de los directivos sea puesto en aumentar los ingresos por ventas o reducir los gastos, o quizás tener en cuenta a ambos como principales variables “independientes”.
Por otro lado, en el caso de haber elegido como variable dependiente llegar a desarrollar “una vigorosa cultura empresarial / organizacional, posiblemente los esfuerzos de la dirección y/o del propietario deban orientarse hacia otros aspectos, como por ejemplo: motivación del personal, capacitación y entrenamiento, análisis del sistema de recompensas, desarrollo del trabajo en equipo, mayor participación del personal en la toma de decisiones.
Estos otros aspectos que hemos mencionado se convierten de ésta manera en las variables independientes para el caso de que nos interese desarrollar una vigorosa cultura.
Para aquellos interesados en profundizar más sobre este tema podemos sugerirles acudir a nuestras “Prácticas” donde a través de ejercitaciones de distinto tipo, se desarrollan estas nuevas habilidades.
Y luego al poseerlas, han de estar en mejores condiciones de interpretar los marcos teóricos y conceptuales de otros notables expertos. A través de nuestras intervenciones de Cambio Organizacional hemos aprendido que los consultores muchas veces subestimamos las capacidades de nuestros Clientes, en especial cuando se trata de Empresarios que son Propietarios de sus negocios.
Uno de mis hallazgos muestra evidencia que una intervención puede iniciarse como resultado de que es el Consultor el que comparte con el Propietario “lo que harían distintos expertos notables” bajo la situación que vive la empresa.
Y los resultados nos han mostrado que estos mismos propietarios han sido muy efectivos en facilitar el proceso de introducir Cambio Organizacional como resultado de esta particular forma de intervención organizacional (Congreso de Desarrollo Organizacional; Argentina – 1999. Taller: ¿Pueden los Consultores compartir con los Clientes lo que ellos como Consultores tienen en sus cabezas?).
Hasta aquí pareciera que el trabajo de un directivo corporativo o de un empresario – propietario no debería ser tan difícil.
Después de cierto tiempo cada uno de ellos en base a su experiencia dentro de sus respectivas empresas han de haber aprendido lo suficiente como para saber cuales son las variables más independientes y en qué medida debieran dosificar dosis para que cada una de ellas tenga una mayor incidencia (positiva) sobre la variable dependiente en que están interesados.
Pero surge algo que aquellos que están familiarizados con las Ciencias del Comportamiento en las Organizaciones reconocen como válido, pero que no necesariamente lo reconoce el resto de las personas.
No existe un solo millonario en el planeta, ni tampoco una sola persona exitosa, que no haya sabido interactuar con otros. Incluso los artistas han tenido que “congeniar” con sus sponsors de turno, y es posible que algún artista plástico y algunos pocos más en el mundo hayan conseguido el éxito.
Pero resulta que los muy pocos que lo han alcanzado “sin otros” en el caso de artistas plásticos, su fama exitosa ha requerido de su muerte; son “marchands” (muchos de ellos) los que usufructúan lo que el artista ha producido.
Lo que estamos sugiriendo es que existe una nueva variable pero que va más allá de la variable dependiente que eligiéramos como más importante, y también va más allá de las distintas variables independientes que hemos “descubierto”.
Se trata de una variable “interviniente” que actúa como moderadora de la relación entre las variables independientes descubiertas y nuestra variable dependiente en la cual estamos poniendo foco.
Al actuar la variable interviniente como moderadora nos encontramos con una situación particular que ya no resulta tan fácil de manejar dentro del mundo de las empresas.
¿Y qué es realmente una variable interviniente que influye moderando la relación entre la variable independiente y la variable dependiente?
Ustedes se preguntarán: ¿Por qué no lo explica de una manera más simple?
Pues bien, tengamos en cuenta la siguiente situación.
En algunas pocas empresas y también en muchos negocios nos encontramos con que se ha dispuesto tener música durante el horario de trabajo o el horario de atención a Clientes.
¿Cuál es la hipótesis general respecto de ésta decisión que ha tomado el directivo máximo?
El directivo ha asumido que, en el caso de una empresa, su personal ha de trabajar más eficazmente si creamos un ambiente con música mientras que en el caso de un negocio el supuesto es que además del personal los Clientes también se sienten mejor en el negocio cuando escuchan música.
Algo parecido sucede cuando los directivos corporativo o propietario de un negocio deciden instalar equipos de aire acondicionado; el supuesto básico es que ha de mejorar el clima de la empresa, la satisfacción de las personas y la eficiencia.
Pues bien, esto no es siempre así. La intensidad de la música – es decir el volumen – puede influir sobre la supuesta relación unívoca entre la variable independiente y la variable dependiente.
Resulta obvio que si la música es puesta a todo volumen las personas no han de ser muy efectivas en su trabajo, y esto también puede ser cierto si la música se encuentra a niveles muy bajos.
Existe lo que llamamos un término “medio” donde SÍ encontramos que, a ciencia cierta, existe una relación unívoca entre la variable independiente (la música) y la dependiente.
Lo mismo sucede con el aire acondicionado pues instancias de intensidad muy bajas o muy altas pueden producir efectos contrarios de lo que nosotros esperamos.
En ambos casos, la intensidad de la música y la intensidad de la temperatura del equipo de aire acondicionado, ambos actúan como variables intervinientes que se caracterizan por moderar la relación entre la variable independiente y la dependiente.
Algo similar ocurre con las distintas unidades de análisis que tienen que ver con la marcha de las organizaciones.
Algunas cosas que hemos aprendido respecto del comportamiento individual no resulta ser suficiente para manejar eficientemente las empresas y organizaciones. Ha nacido todo un cuerpo de conocimiento que tiene que ver con temas relacionados con lo que llamamos la segunda unidad de análisis: el grupo.
El individuo es la primera unidad de análisis y la organización es la tercera, pero el nexo entre ambas se produce a través de la segunda unidad de análisis que es el grupo.
La actividad grupal altera entonces las relaciones que nosotros podemos dar como válidas cuando en nuestras cabezas (metafóricamente hablando puesto que realmente es en nuestras mentes) tenemos preferentemente a las personas y a la empresa.
La literatura en materia de grupos dentro de las organizaciones cubre (como mínimo) los siguientes aspectos:
- – Que es realmente un Grupo
- – Cómo se diferencia de un Equipo
- – Lo que sucede diferencialmente como resultado de grupos de a dos, de a tres, en grupos pequeños y en grupos grandes
- – Como se crean los grupos
- – Proceso de formación de grupos
- – Crecimiento de los grupos
- – Las normativas formales en grupos
- – La distribución de recursos en grupos
- – Aspectos funcionales – y disfuncionales – de los grupos en crecimiento a tener en cuenta
- – Funciones, roles y posiciones de los ocupantes
- – El papel del status dentro de los grupos
- – El grupo en movimiento (dinámica grupal)
- – Los procesos de facilitación de ideas en grupos
- – Los procesos de implementación de ideas en grupos
- – La cohesión: su influencia en los grupos.
- – Aspectos funcionales y disfuncionales de la cohesión
- – Incorporando el riesgo en el grupo de trabajo
- – Como operan las fuerzas competitivas y cooperativas
- – El momento de terminación del grupo.
En un trabajo de campo realizado hace unos 10 años donde se han expuesto los puntos recientemente mencionados con los expertos en la materia, nos hemos encontrado que tanto los directivos y ejecutivos corporativos como así también los propietarios de empresas, desconocían en su inmensa mayoría a ambos: los conocimientos y también a los autores de esos conocimientos.
Hemos editado un trabajo sobre el comportamiento de grupos en organizaciones y empresas para justamente poner a disposición de los ejecutivos corporativos el conocimiento sobre esta importante temática, el que puede ser consultado por usted, estimado lector, en: www.gestiopolis.com
Y ahora, con el propósito de expandir aún más los conocimientos y ponerlos a disposición de ejecutivos y empresarios, estamos agregando al material en Grupos, esta primer Bibliografía en español sobre estos contenidos que son de vital importancia para poder crear empresas y organizaciones efectivas y eficientes.
Las personas pueden ser exitosas practicando y a través del extraordinario método de aprendizaje que es conocido como prueba y error se han hecho muchos avances. Nosotros intentamos ir incluso un paso más allá y agregar conocimientos de las distintas disciplinas para el mejor logro práctico.
Aunque suene paradójico, la conquista espacial ha sido posible por el hecho de que existen en los últimos 70 años ciertos conocimientos y concepciones que permiten llevar a la práctica el envío de una nave al espacio, y que ésta pueda regresar con sus tripulantes. Solamente con la práctica, hubiéramos tenido dificultades en alcanzar los logros actuales en materia espacial.
Los empresarios y directivos corporativos cuenten ahora con un cuerpo muy consistente de conceptos que le permiten contar con un marco de referencia que le proporciona mayor seguridad en el éxito de sus emprendimientos. No hacer uso de ellos, lleva a los empresarios a lo que se conoce como “jugar en el Casino” donde usualmente es el groupier – y no el que juega – quién se lleva las ganancias.
Aceptamos con mucho gusto nuevas sugerencias sobre materiales en materia de esta temática de “Grupos en organizaciones / empresas”. Desde ya les damos la bienvenida y nuestro agradecimiento.
Bibliografía: “Grupos” en las Organizaciones
Abegglen, J. C. (1958). The Japanese factory: Aspects of its social organization. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Albanese, R. (1975). Management: Toward Accountability for Performance. Homewood, In.: Irwin.
Albanese, R. & Van Fleet, D. D. (1985). Rational behavior in groups: the free-riding tendency. Academy of Management Review, issue number 10.
Alderfer, C. A. (1988). “Gender Relevant Concerns in the Supervisory Process.” Unpublished comprehensive examination, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
Alderfer, C. P. (1970). “Understanding Laboratory Education: An Overview.” Monthly Labor Review, volume 93.
Alderfer, C. P. (1976). “Boundary Relations and Organizational Diagnosis” In Meltzer and Wickert (eds.), Humanizing Organizational Behavior. Springfield, In.: Thomas.
Alderfer, C. P. (1976). “Change Processes in Organizations.” En Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Alderfer, C. P. (1977). “Group and Inter-group Relations.” En Hackman and Suttle (eds.), Improving Life at Work: Behavioral Sciences Approaches to Organizational Change. Santa Monica, Cal.: Goodyear.
Alderfer, C. P. (1986). “An Intergroup Perspective on Group Dynamics.” En Lorsch (ed.) Handbook of Organizational Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N. .: Prentice-Hall.
Alderfer, C. P. (1988). “Teaching Personality and Leadership: A Course on Followership.” Organizational Behavior Teaching Review. volume 12.
Alderfer, C. P., and C. L. Cooper (1980). Advances in Experiential Social Processes, volume 2. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Alderfer, C. P. & Edward B. Klein (1978). “Affect, Leadership, and Organizational Boundaries.” Journal of Personality and Social Systems, volume 1.
Alderfer, C. P., and Thomas Lodahi (1971). “A Quasi Experiment on the Use of Experiential Methods in the Classroom.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 7.
Alderfer, Ciayt P., and Kenwyn K. Smith (1982). “Studying Inter-group Relation Embedded in Organizations. Administrative Sciences Quarterly. Volume 27.
Argyris, Chris (1962). Interpersonal Competence and Organizational Effectiveness Homewood, Ill.: Irwin-Dorsey.
Argyris, Chris,(1970). Intervention Theory and Method. Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley.
Astrachan, Boris (1970). “Towards a Social Systems Model of Therapeutic Groups.” Social Psychiatry, volume 5.
Azumi, K., & McMillan, C. J. (1976). Worker sentiment in the Japanese factory: Its organizational determinants. In L. Austin (Ed.), Japan: The paradox of progress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Back, Kurt W. (1972). Beyond Words: The Story of Sensitivity Training and the Encounter Movement. New York: Sage.
Baker, F. (ed.) (1973). Organizational Systems: General System Approaches to Complex Organizations. Homewood, IL.: Irwin.
Bales, R. Freed (1950). Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Bales, R. Freed (1955). “Adaptive and Integrative Changes as Sources of Strain in Social Systems.” En Hare, Borgatta, and Bales (eds.), Small Groups. New York: Knopf.
Bales, R. Freed (1958). “Task Roles and Social Roles in Problem-Solving Groups.” En Maccoby et al. (eds.), Readings in Social Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Bales, R. Freed (1970). Personality and Interpersonal Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Banas, P (1988). Employee involvement: A sustained labor – management initiative at Ford Motor Company. In J. P. Campbell & R. J. Campbell (Eds.), Productivity in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Barber, W. H. (1987). “Role Analysis Group: Integrating and Applying Work shop Learning.” En Reddy and Henderson (eds.), Training Theory and Practice. Arlington, Va.: National Training Laboratories.
Basadur, M. (1992). Managing creativity: A Japanese model. Academy of Management Executive, issue 6.
Befu, H. (1982). A critique of the group model of Japanese society. Social Analysis, issues 5 & 6.
Behrman J. and R. Levin (1984). “Are Business Schools Doing Their Job?” Harvard Business Review, volune 62.
Bellah, R. N., R. Madsen, W. IN. Sullivan, A. Swidler, and S. M. Tipton (1985). Habits of the Heart. New York: Harper & Row.
Benedict, R. (1946). The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns of Japanese culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Benne, K. (1964). “History of the T-Group in the Laboratory Setting.” En Bradford, Gibb, and Benne (eds.), T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Benne, Kenneth D. (1968). “From Polarization to Paradox.” En Bennis, Schein, Steele, and Berlew (eds.), Interpersonal Dynamics. Homewood, Ill..: Dorsey.
Benner, P. (1984). From Novice lo Expert. Menlo Park, Cal.: Addison-Wesley
Bennett, J. W., & Ishino, I. (1963). Paternalism in the Japanese economy: Anthropological studies of oyabroun-kobun patterns. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Bennis, Warren G., and Herbert A. Shepard (1956). “A Theory of Group Development.” Human Relations, volume 9.
Bennis, W. and H. Shepard (1974). “A Theory of Group Development.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bennis, Warren G. (1964). “Patterns and Vicissitudes in T-Group Development.” En Bradford, Gibb, and Benne (eds.), T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Benveniste, E. (1971). Problems in general linguistics. Miami, PL: University of Miami Press.
Berg, David N., and K. K. Smith (eds.) (1985). The Self in Social Inquire. Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage.
Berg, David N. (1980). “Developing Clinical Field Skills: An Apprenticeship Model.” En Alderfer and Cooper (eds.), Advances in Experiential Social Processes, volume 2. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Berry, J. W. (1980). Introduction to methodology. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Biddle, B. J. (1986). Recent developments in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology, issue 12.
Biddle, B. J., & Thomas, E. J. (1966). Role theory: Concepts and research. New York: Wiley.
Bion, Wilfred R. (1955). “Language and the Schizophrenic.” En Klein, Heimann, and Money-Kyle (eds.), New Directions in Psychoanalysis. London: Tavistock.
Bion, Wilfred R. (1975). “Selections from Experiences in Groups.” En Colman and Bexton (eds), Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Bion, Wilfred R. (1956). “Development of Schizophrenic Thought.” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, volume 37 (1961). Experiences in Groups. London: Tavistock.
Bolman, Lee G. (1970). “Laboratory versus Lecture in Training Executives.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 6.
Bolman, Lee G. (1970). “Some Effects of Trainers on Their Groups.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 7.
Boorstin, Daniel J. (1983). The Discoverers. New York: Random House.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The logic of practice. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Bradford, D. L. (1980). “A Model of Trainer Development.” En Alderfer and Cooper (eds.), Advances in Experiential Social Processes, volume 12. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Bradford, Leland P. (1967). “Biography of an Institution.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 3.
Bradford, Leland P., Jack R. Gibb, and K. D. Benne (eds.) (1964). T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Bridger, H. (1987). “Courses and Working Conferences as Transitional Learning Institutions: A Tavistock Institute Approach to Training.” En Reddy and Henderson (eds.), Training Theory and Practice. Arlington. Va.: National Training Laboratories.
Brief, A. P., & Aldag, R. J. (1975). Employee reactions to job characteristics: A constructive replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, issue 60.
Brown, E. (1979). “Intimacy and Power.” Voices, volume 15. number 1.
Brown, Roger (1965). Social Psychology. New York: Free Press.
Bunker, B. B., T Nochajski, N. McGillicuddy, and D. Bennett (1987). “Designing and Running Training Events: Rules of Thumb for Trainers.” En Reddy and Henderson (eds.), Training Theory and Practice. Arlington, Va.: N Training Laboratories.
Burns, T., & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The management of innovation. London: Tavistock.
Caplan, R. D., and W. Jones (1975). “Effects of Workload, Role Ambiguity, and Type A – on Anxiety, Depression, and Heart Rate.” Journal of Applied Psychology, volume 60, number 6.
Cartwright, Dorwin, and Alvin Zander (1968). Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, New York: Harper & Row.
Caudili, W., & Weinstein, H. (1969). Maternal care and infant behavior in Japan and America. Psychiatry issue 32.
Cherrington, D. J. (1973). Satisfaction in competitive conditions. Organizational behavior and human performance; issue number 10.
Clark, R. (1979). The Japanese company. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Coates, N. (1988). Determinants of Japan’s business success: Some Japanese executives’ views. Academy of Management Executive, issue 2.
Cole, R. E. (1971). Japanese blue collar: The changing tradition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cole, R. E. (1979). Work, mobility and participation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cole, R. E., & Byosiere, P. (1986). Managerial objectives for introducing quality circles: A U.S.— Japan comparison. Quality Progress, issue 19.
Collins, A., & Gentner, D. (1987). How people construct mental models. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought. Cambridge, England: Cambridge: University Press.
Colman, Arthur D., and W. Harold Bexton (eds.) (1975). Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal.: GREX.
Colman, A. D., and I. H. Geller (eds.) (1985). Group Relations Reader, volume 2. Washington, D. C.: A. K. Rice Institute.
Conant, James E. (1964). Two Modes of Thought: My Encounters with Science and Education. New York: Trident.
Coser, L. (1956). Functions of Social Conflict. Glencoe, In: Free Press.
Cooney, B. D. (1989). Japan and America: Culture counts. Training and Development Journal, issue 43.
Copley, P. (1986). Schooling a more productive workforce: What can we learn from the Japanese. High School Journal, issue 69.
Cottrell, N. B., Wack, D. L., Sekerak, G. J. & Rittle, R. M. (1968). Social facilitation of dominant responses by the presence of an audience and the mere presence of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; issue number 9.
Dalton, M. (1959). Men who manage. New York: Wiley.
D’Andrade, R., & Strauss, C. (1992). Human motives and cultural models. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Darley, J. M. & Berscheid E. (1967). Increased liking as a result of the anticipation of personal contact. Human Relations; volume 20.
Davis, I. D. (1973). Intimate Relations. New York: Free Press.
Davy A., White, R. E., Merritt, N.J., & Gritzmacher, K. (1992). A derivation of the underlying constructs of just-in-time management systems. Academy of Management Journal, volume 35.
Deutsch, M. A. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations; issue number 2.
De Vos, G. A. (1968). Achievement and innovation in culture and personality. In E. Norbeck, D. Price—Williams, & W. M. McCord (Eds.), The study of personality: An interdisciplinary approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Diamond, Michael, and Seth Allcorn (1987). “The Psychodynamics of Regression in Work Groups.” Human Relations, volume 40.
Diehl, M. & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Toward the solution of a riddle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; volume 53.
Doi, L. T. (1971). Amae no kozo (structure of amae). Tokyo: Kobunsha.
Doi, L. T. (1973). The anatomy of dependence. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Dollinger, M. J. (1988). Confucian ethics and Japanese management practices. Journal of Business Ethics, volume 7.
Dore, R P. (1969). The modernizer as a special case: Japanese factory legislation 1882—1911. Comparative Studies in Society and History, volume 2.
Dore, R. P. (1973). British factory—Japanese factory. London: Allen and Unwin.
Dore, R. P. (1983). Goodwill and the spirit of market capitalism British Journal of Sociology, volume 34.
Dunphy, D. (1987). Convergence/divergence: A temporal review of the Japanese enterprise and its management Academy of Management Review, volume 6.
Dunphy, Dexter (1968). “Phases, Roles, and Myths in Self-Analytic Groups.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 4.
Eddy, William (1985). The Manager and the Working Group. New York: Praeger.
Egan, Gerard (1970). Encounter: Group Processes for Interpersonal Growth. Belmont, Cal.: Brooks/Cole.
Ekstein, R., and R. S. Wallerstein (1958). The Teaching and Learning of Psychotherapy. New York: International Universities Press.
Emery, F. E. and E. L. Trist (1973). “Causal Texture of Environment.” En Baker (ed.), Organizational Systems: General Systems Approaches to Complex Organizations. Homewood, In.: Irwin.
Emery, F. E., and E. E. Trist (1973b). Toward a Social Ecology. New York: Plenum.
England, G. W. (1983). Japanese and American management: Theory Z and beyond. Journal of International Business Studies. Issue 14.
England, G. W., & Harpaz, L (1990). How working is defined: National contexts and demographic and; organizational role influences. Journal of Organizational Behavior, volume 11.
England, G. W., & Koike, R. (1970). Personal value systems of Japanese management. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, volume 1.
England, G. W., & Lee, R. (1973). Organizational size as an influence on perceived organizational goals: A comparative study among American, Japanese and Korean managers. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, issue 9.
England,G. W., & Misumi,T. (1986). Work centrality in Japan and the United States. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, issue 17.
England, G. W., Negandhi, A. R., & Wilpert, B. (Eds.). (1981). The functioning of complex organizations. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Guin & Ham.
Erez, M. (1989). Interpersonal communication patterns In Japanese corporations: Their relationships to cultural values and to productivity and innovation. Unpublished manuscript, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa.
Erikson, Erik H. (1958). “The Nature of Clinical Evidence.” En Lerner (ed.), Evidence and Inference. Glencoe, Ill..: Free Press.
Erikson, Erik, H. (1963). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.
Erikson, Erik, H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility. New York: Norton.
Erikson, Erik, H. (1975). Life History and the Historical Moment. New York: Norton.
Erikson, Erik, H.(1980). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Norton.
Etzioni, Amitai (1971). A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations. New York: Macmillan.
Evan, W. IN. (1966). “The Organization Set: Toward a Theory of Interorganizational Relationships.” En Thompson (ed.), Approaches to Organizational Design. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Farmer, R. N., & Richman, B. M. (1965). Comparative management and economic progress. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Feldman, D. C. & Thompson, H. D. (1992). Entry shock, culture shock: socializing the new breed of global managers. Human Resource Management; volume 31, number 4.
Ferris, G. R., & Wagner, J. A. (1985). Quality circles in the United States: A conceptual reevaluation. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 21.
Frank, J. (1974). “Training and Therapy” In Bradford, Gibb, and Beene (eds.), T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
French, John, and Bertram Rayen (1959). “The Bases of Social Power”. En Cartwright (ed.), Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research.
Freud, Sigmund (1959). Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego. New York: Norton.
Friedlander, Peter (1975). The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936—1939: A Study in Class and Culture. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1959). “Loneliness.” Psychiatry, volume 22.
Fruin, W. M. (1978). The Japanese company controversy. Journal of Japanese Studies, issue 4.
Fruin, W. M. (1980). The family as a firm and the firm as a family in Japan: The case of Kikkoman Shoyu Company Limited. Journal of Family History, issue 5.
Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Garvin, D. A. (1986). Quality problems, policies and attitudes in the United States and Japan: An exploratory study. Academy of Management Journal, issue 29.
Gentner, D. (1983). Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cognitive Science, issue 7.
Gersick, Connie (1988). “Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development.” Academy of Management Journal, volume 31.
Gersick, Connie (1989). Making time: predictable transitions in task groups. Academy of Management Journal, volume 3.
Gibb, Jack R. (1972). “The Search for With-ness: A New Look at Interdependence.” En Dyer (ed.), Modern Theory and Method in Group Training. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Gibbard, G. (1974). “Individuation, Fusion, and Role Specialization.” En Gibb Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Hossey-Bass.
Gibbard, Graham, John Hartman, and Richard Mann (1974). “The Individual and the Group.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gibbard, Graharn, John Hartman, and Richard Mann (1974). “Group Process and Development.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gibbard, Graham, John Hartman, and Richard Mann (1974). “The Dynamics of Leadership.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gibbard, Graham S., John J. Hartman, and Richard D. Mann (eds.) (1974). Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gibbard, Graham S. (1975). “Bion’s Group Psychology: A Reconsideration” Unpublished manuscript, West Haven Veterans Administration Hospital, West Haven, Conn.
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, volume 12.
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, volume 15.
Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory: Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. London: Macmillan.
Gillette, Jonathon H. (1985). “History in the Here-and-Now.”. In Berg and Smith (eds.), Exploring Clinical Methods for Social Research. Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage.
Gilligan, Carol (1982). In a Different Voice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Gilmore, T., and J. Krantz. “The Splitting of Management and Leadership as a Social Defense.” Forth coming in Human Relations.
Golden, William P. (1972). “On Becoming a Trainer.” En Dyer (ed.), Modern Theory and Method In Group Training. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Gould, Roger (1978). Transformations: Growth and. Change in Adult Life. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Greenspan, 1. S., and F. W. Mannis (1974). “A Model for Brief Intervention with Couples Based on Projective Identification.” American Journal of Psychiatry, volume 10.
Hackman, J. R. (1976). Group influence on individuals. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Hackman, J. R., & Lawler, E. E. III (1971). Employee reactions to job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, issue 55.
Hackman, J. Richard, and Greg Oldham (1980). Work Redesign. Reading. Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Hackman, R. (1985). “On Seeking One’s Own Clinical Voice: A Personal Account.” En Berg and Smith (eds.), Exploring Clinical Methods for Social Research. Beverly Hills, Ca: Sage.
Haire, M., Ghiselli, E. E., & Porter, L. W. (1966). Managerial thinking: An international study. New York: Wiley.
Hall, Edward T. (1973). The Silent Language. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
Harpaz, I. (1989). Non-financial employment commitment: A cross-national commitment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, issue 62.
Hartman, J. J., and G. S. Gibbard (1974). “A Note on Fantasy Themes in the Evolution of Group Culture.” En Gibbard, Hartman and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hatvany, N., & Pucik, V. (1981). An integrated management system: Lessons from the Japanese experience. Academy of Management Review, issue 6.
Hayashi, S. (1988). Culture and management. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
Hayles, R. (1978). “Psychological Health among Culturally Different Families.” Presented at 4th Congress of the International Association of Cross Cultural Psychology, Munich.
Heslin, R. & Dunphy, D. (1964). Three dimensions of member satisfaction in small groups; Human Relations.
Hess, A. K. (1986). “Growth in Supervision: Stages of Supervisee and Supervisor Development.” En Kaslow (ed.), Supervision and Training: Models, Dilemmas, and Challenges. New York: Haworth.
Hesseling, P., & Konnen, E. (1969). Culture and subculture in a decision-making exercise. Human Relations, volume 22.
Hirschmeier, J., & Yui, T. (1975). The development of Japanese business, 1600—1973. London: Allen & Unwin.
Hodgson, Richard C., Daniel J. Levinson, and Abraham Zalenik (1965). The Executive Role Constellation: An Analysis of Personality and Role Relations in Management. Boston: Division of Research, Harvard Business School.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. Journal of International Business Studies, issue 14.
Holyoak, K. J. (1984). Mental models in problem solving. En J. R. Anderson & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Tutorials in learning and memory. San Francisco: Freeman.
Homans, G. (1950). The Human Group. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Howard, N., & Teramoto, Y. (1981). The really important difference between Japanese and Western management. Management International Review, issue 21.
Hughes, P., and G. Brecht (1975). Vicious Circles and Infinity. New York: Penguin
Iacocca, L., & Novak, W. (1984). Iacocca: an autobiography. New York: Bantam Books.
Jaffe, D. S. (1968). “The Mechanism of Projection: Its Dual Role in Object Relations.” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, volume 49.
Janis, Irving. (1972). Victims of Group Think. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Jaques, E. (1974). “Social Systems as a Defense Against Persecutory and Depressive Anxiety” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jaques, E. (1955). “Social Systems as a Defense Against Persecutory and Depressive Anxiety.” En Klein, Hermann, and Money-Kyle (eds.), New Directions in Psychoanalysis: The Significance of Infant Conflict in the Pattern of Adult Behavior. New York: Basic Books.
Jenkins, D. C. (1971). “Psychologic and Social Precursors of Coronary Disease.” New England Journal of Medicine, volume 284.
Jewell, I. N. & Reitz (1981). Group effectiveness in organizations. Glenview, Il: Scott, Foresman.
Johnson, D. W., and F. P. Johnson (1975). Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Kanter, Rosabeth IN. (1977). “Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women.” Journal of Sociology, volume 82.
Kaplan, Abraham (1964). The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science. San Francisco: Chandler.
Kaplan, Robert E. (1982). “The Dynamics of Injury in Encounter Groups: Power, Splitting, and the Mismanagement of Resistance.” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, volume 32.
Kaplan, Robert E., Steven L. Obert, and William R. Van Buskirk (1980). “The Etiology of Encounter Group Casualties: ‘Second Facts.’” Human Relations, volume 33.
Kaplan, Sidney, & I. Rornan (1963). “Phases of Development in an Adult Therapy Group.” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, volume 13.
Karpman, D. (1968). “Script Drama Analysis.” Transactional Analysis Bulletin, volume 26.
Karsh, B. (1984). Human resources management in Japanese large-scale industry. Journal of Industrial Relations, issue 26.
Kashima, Y. (1987). Conceptions of person: Implications in individualism/collectivism research. In C. Kagitcibasi (Ed.), Growth and progress in cross cultural psychology. Lisse, theNetherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Kaslow, F. W. (1986). “Supervision, Consultation, and Staff Training: Creative Teaching/Learning Processes in the Mental Health Profession.” En Kaslow (ed.), Supervision and Training: Models, Dilemmas, and Challenges. New York: Haworth.
Katz, Daniel (1965). Explaining informal work groups in complex organizations: the case for autonomy in structure. Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 10.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.
Katzenbach, J. R. & Smith, D. K. (1993). The wisdom of teams: creating the high performance organization. Boston: Harvard Business School.
Keller, R. T. (1986). Predictors of performance of project groups in R & D organizations. Academy of management Journal; issue 29.
Kelly, L., & Worthley, R. (1981). The role of culture in comparative management A cross-cultural perspective. Academy of Management Journal, issue 24.
Kelman, H. C. (1958). Compliance, identification and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, issue 2.
Kemberg, O. (1980). Internal World and External Reality. New York: Jason Aronson.
Kiefer C. W. (1974). The psychological interdependence of family, school and bureaucracy in Japan. En T. S. Lebra & W. P. Lebra (Eds.), Japanese culture and behavior. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kiesler, R. T. & Kiesler, C. B. (1969). Conformity. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Kim, Y. Y., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1988). Theories of intercultural communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Klein, Edward B. (1980). “Change Is Normal: Adult Development Theory and Research with Clinical Applications.” En Karoly and Steffen (eds.), Improving the Long-Term Effects of Psychotherapy: Models of Durable Outcome. New York: Gardner.
Klein, Edward B., and Boris Astrachan (1971). “Learning Groups and Study Groups.” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 7, number 6.
Klein, Edward B. (1972). “Learning in Groups: A Comparison of Study and T-Groups.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 7, number 6.
Klein, Melanie (1932). The Psycho-Analysis of Children. New York: Delta.
Klein, Melanie (1955). “On Identification.” En Klein, Helmann, and Money-Kyle (eds.), New Directions in Psychoanalysis. London: Tavistock.
Klein, Melanie (1960). Our Adult World and Its Roots in Infancy. London: Tavistock.
Klein, Melanie (1983). “Some Theoretical Conclusions Regarding the Emotional Life of the Infant.” En Riviere (ed.), Developments in Psycho-Analysis. New York: DaCapo.
Klein, Melanie (1985). “Our Adult World and its Roots in Infancy.” En Colman and Geller (eds.). Group Relations Reader 2. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Klein, Melanie, and Joan Riviere (1964). Love, Hate, and Reparation. New York: Norton.
Koike, H., Gudykunst, W. B., & Stewart, L. P. (1988). Communication openness, satisfaction and length of employment in Japanese organizations. Communication Research Reports, issue 5.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Kolb, D. A., I. Rubin, and J. McIntyre (1974). Learning and Problem Solving in Organizational Psychology: An Experiential Approach. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Kondo, D. K. (1990). Crafting solves: Power, gender, and discourses of identity in a Japanese workplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kram, Kathy E. (1983). “Phases of the Mentor Relationship.” Academy of Management Journal, volume 26.
Kretch, D., R. S. Crutchfield, and E. L. Ballachey (1962). Individual in Society: A Textbook of Social Psychology. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
Lachman, R. (1983). Modernity change of core and periphery values of factory workers. Human Relations, issue 36.
Lacoursier, Roy (1980). The Life Cycle of Groups. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lasch, C. (1979). The Culture of Narcissism. New York: Norton.
Latane, B. & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: why doesn´t he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Laughlin, H. P. (1970). The Ego and Its Defenses. New York: Appleton Century-Crofts.
Lawler, E. E., & Mohrman, S. A. (1985). Quality circles after the fad. Harvard Business Review, issue 63.
Lawler, E. E., & Mohrman, S. A. (1987). Quality circles: After the honeymoon. Dynamics, issue 15.
Lawrence, P., and J. Lorsch (1967). Organizations and Environment. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Le Bon, G. (1895). The Crowd. New York: Macmillan.
Lebowitz, Z. B., C. Farren, and B. L. Kaye (1986). Designing Career Development Systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lebra, T. S. (1984). Japanese women: Constraints and fulfillment. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Leventhal, G. S. (1976). The distribution of rewards and resources in groups and organizations. En L. Berkowitz & E. Walster (Eds.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology; New York: McGraw Hill.
Levine, R. A., and D. T. Campbell (1972). Ethnocentricism. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Levinson, Daniel J., C. I. Darrow, Edward. B. Klein, I. H. Levinson, and J. B. McKee (1978). The Seasons of a Man’s Life. New York: Ballantine.
Lewin, Kurt (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper & Row.
Likert, R. (1961). New patterns of management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lidz, T. (1968). The Person. New York: Basic Books.
Lieberman, Morton A., Irvin D. Yalom, and Matthew B. Miles (1973). Encounter Groups: First Facts. New York: Basic Books.
Lifton, Robert (1983). The Life of the Self. New York: Basic Books.
Likert, R. (1967). The Human Organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lincoln, J. R., Hanada, M., & McBride, K. (1986). Organizational structures in Japanese and U.S. manufacturing. Administrative Science Quarterly, issue 31.
Lincoln, J. R., Hanada, M., & Olson, J. (1981). Cultural orientations and individual reactions to organizations: A study of employees of Japanese-owned firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, issue 26.
Lincoln, J. R., & Kalleberg, A. L. (1985). Work organization and workforce commitment: A study of plants and employees in the U.S. and Japan. American Sociological Review, volume 50.
Lincoln, J. R., & Kalleberg, A. L. (1990). Culture, control, and commitment: A study of work organization and work attitudes in the United States and Japan. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Lincoln, J. R., Olson, J., & Hanada, M. (1978). Cultural effects on organizational structures: The case of Japanese firms in the United States. American Sociological Review, issue 43.
Lippitt, R. O. 1949). Training in Community Relations. New York: Harper and Bros.
Lippitt, R, O & E. Schindler-Rainman (1975). “Designing for Participative Learning and Changing.” En Benne, Bradford, Gibb, and Lippitt (eds.), The Laboratory Method of Changing and Learning. Palo Alto, Cal.: Science and Behavior Books.
Lott, A. J., and B. E. Lott (1965). “Group Cohesiveness as Interpersonal Attraction: A R. of Relationships with Antecedent and Consequent Variables.” Psychological Bulletin, volume 64.
Louis, Meryl (1980). “Surprise and Sensemaking: What Newcomers Experience in Entering Unfamiliar Organizational Settings.” Administrative Sciences Quarterly, volume 25.
Luft, Joseph (1970). Group Process: An Introduction to Group Dynamics. Palo Alto, Cal.: Mayfield.
Lundgren, D. C. (1971). “Trainer Style and Patterns of Group Development.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 7.
Luthans, F., McCaul, H. S., & Dodd, N. G. (1985). Organizational commitment: A comparison of American, Japanese and Korean employees. Academy of Management Journal, issue 28.
Maguire, M. A., & Kroliczak, A. (1983). Attitudes of Japanese and American workers: Convergence or diversity? The Sociological Quarterly, issue 24.
Mahier, I. S. (1972). “On the First Three Sub-phases of the Separation Individuation Process.” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, volume 53.
Malpass, R. S. (1977). Theory and method in cross cultural psychology. American Psychologist, issue 32.
Mann, L., Radford, M., & Kanagawa, C. (1985). Cross-cultural differences in children’s use of decision rules: A comparison between Japan and Australia. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, issue 49.
Mann, Richard D. (1966). “The Development of the Member-Trainer Relationships in Self-Analytic Study Groups.” Human Relations, volume 19.
Mann, Richard D. (1975). “Winners, Losers, and the Search for Equality in Groups.” En Cooper (ed.), Theories of Group Processes. London: Wiley.
Mann, Richard D., Graham S. Gibbard & John J. Hartman (1967). Interpersonal Styles and Group Development. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: Wiley.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review Volume 98.
Marsh, It M., & Mannari, H. (1976). Modernization and the Japanese factory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Marshall, B. K (1967). Capitalism and nationalism in prewar Japan: The ideology of the business elite 1868— 1941. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Martin, J., & Meyerson, D. (1988). Organizational cultures and the denial, channeling and acknowledgement of ambiguity. En L R. Pondy, R. J. Boland, & H. Thomas (Eds.), Managing ambiguity and change. New York: Wiley.
Maruyama, M. (1992). Changing dimensions in international business. Academy of Management Executive, volume 6.
McGrath, J. E. (1984). Groups: Interaction and performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.
McMillan, C. J. (1985). The Japanese industrial system. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Menzies, I. (1961). “The Functioning of Social Systems as a Defense Against Anxiety.” Human Relations, vol. 13.
Menzies, I. (1975). “A Case-Study in the Functioning of Social Systems as a Defense Against Anxiety.” In Colman and Bexton (eds.), Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Merkle, J. A. (1980). Management and ideology: The legacy of the international scientific management movement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Merton, Robert K. 1967). “The Bearing of Sociological Theory on Empirical Research and the Bearing of Empirical Research on Sociological Theory.” In Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press.
Miles, Matthew B. (1975). Learning to Work in Groups. New York: Teachers College Press.
Miller, Eric J. (1959). “Technology, Territory, and Time: The Internal Differentiation of Complex Production Systems.” Human Relations, volume 12.
Miller, Eric J., and A. Kenneth Rice (1967). Systems of Organization: The Control of Task and Sentient Boundaries. London: Tavistock.
Miller, Eric, and A. Kenneth Rice (1975). “Selections from ‘Systems of Organization’”. In Colman and Bexton (eds.), Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Miller, J. C. (1974). “Aspects of Tavistock Consultation.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University.
Miller, James G. (1978). Living Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mills, Theodore I. (1964). Group transformation: An Analysis of a Learning Group. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Mills, Theodore I. (1967). The Sociology of Small Groups. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Misumi, J. (1984). Decision-making in Japanese groups and organizations. In B. Wilpert & A. Sorge (Eds.), International perspectives on organizational democracy. New York: Wiley.
Moeran, B. (1988). Japanese language and society: An anthropological approach. Journal of Pragmatics, issue 12.
Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social exchange. London: Academic Press.
Mouer, R., & Sugimoto, Y. (1986). Images of Japanese society. London: KPI.
MOW International Research Team (1986). The meaning of working: An international perspective. New York: Academic Press.
Mulligan, T. (1987). “The Two Cultures in Business Education”. Academy of Management Review, volume 12.
Myers, D. G. (1983). Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
Nakane, C. (1970b). Japanese society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Naoi, A., & Schooler, C. (1985). Occupational conditions and psychological functioning in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, issue 90.
Newcomb, T. IN. (1961). The Acquaintance Process. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Nonaka, I., & Johansson, J. K. (1985). Japanese management: What about the “hard” skills? Academy of Management Review, issue 10.
Odaka, K. (1975). Toward industrial democracy: Management and workers in modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
O’Day, R. (1974). “The T-Group Trainer: A Study in Conflict in the Exercise of Authority.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds4, Analysis in Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ohmae, K. (1982). Quality control circles: They work and don’t work The Wall Street Journal, p. 16.
Okabe, R. (1983). Cultural assumptions of East and West: Japan and the United States. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intercultural communications theory: Current perspectives. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Okochi, K., Karsh, B., & Levine, S. B. (1974). Workers and employers in Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Olmsted, I. S., & A. P. Hare (1978). The Small Group. New York: Random House.
Oshry, Barry (1978). Power and Systems Laboratory in Organization Behavior. Boston: Power and Systems, Inc.
Ott, J. S. (1989). The organizational culture perspective. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Ouchi, W. G. (1981). Theory Z: How American business can meet the Japanese challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Pascale, R. T. (1978). Personnel practices and employee attitudes: A study of Japanese-and American-managed firms in the U.S. Human Relations, volume 31.
Pascale, R. T. (1978). Communication and decision making across cultures—Japanese and American comparisons. Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 23.
Pascale, R. T., & Althos, A. (1981). The art of Japanese management. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Pascale, R. T., & Maguire, M. A. (1980). Comparisons of selected work factors in Japan and the United States. Human Relations, issue 33.
Perls, F. (1970). Gestalt Therapy. New York: Basic Books.
Peters, T., and R. Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America ‘s Best Run Companies. New York: Harper & Row.
Piaget, Jean (1963). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York: Norton.
Plath, D (1980). Long engagements: Maturity in modern Japan Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Pondy. L. R. (1983). The role of metaphors and myths in organization and in the facilitation of change. En L. R. Pondy, P. J. Frost, G. Morgan, & T. C. Dandridge (Eds.), Organizational symbolism. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Reason, J. (1990). Human error. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Quinn, R. F. (1977). “Coping with Cupid: The Formation, Impact, and Management of Romantic Relationships in Organizations.” Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 22.
Redlich, F. C. and Boris Astrachan (1975). “Group Dynamics Training.” En Colman and Bexton (eds.), Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Redl, F. (1942). “Group Emotion and Leadership.” Psychiatry, volume 5.
Reed, B. D. (1976). “Organizational Role Analysis.” En Cooper (ed.), Developing Social Skills in Managers. London: Macmillan.
Rehder, R. R. (1983). Education and Training: Have the Japanese beaten us again? Personnel Journal, volume 62.
Rice, A. Kenneth (1963). The Enterprise and Its Environment. London: Tavistock.
Rice, A. Kenneth (1965). Learning for Leader Interpersonal and Intergroup Relationships. London: Tavistock.
Rice, A. Kenneth (1969). “Individual, Group, and Intergroup Processes.” Human Relations, volume 22.
Ringwald, John W. (1974). “An Investigation of Group Reaction to Central Figures.” En Gibbard, Hartman and Mann (eds.) Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rioch, Margaret J. (1970). “The Work of Wilfred Bion on Groups.” Psychiatry, volume 33, number. 2
Rioch, Margaret J. (1971). “Ah We Like Sheep—(Isaiah 53:6): Followers and Leaders.” Psychiatry, volume 34.
Rioch, Margaret J. (1975). “Group Relations: Rationale and Technique.” En Colman and Bexton (eds.), Group Relations Reader. Sausalito, Cal: GREX.
Rohien, T. P. (1974a). Sponsorship of cultural continuity in Japan: A company training program. In T. S. Lebra & W. P. Lebra (Eds.), Japanese culture and behavior: Selected readings. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Rohlen, T. P. (1974b). For harmony and strength: Japanese white-collar organizations in anthropological perspective. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Rohlen, T. P. (1983). Japanese high schools. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Ronen, S. (1986). Comparative and multinational management. New York: Wiley.
Rosenfeld, A., and E. Stark (1987). “The Prime of Our Lives.” Psychology Today, vol. 21.
Ross, Raymond (1989). Small Groups in Organizational Settings. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Sackmann, S. (1989). The role of metaphors in organization transformation. Human Relations, issue 42.
Sandelands, L. E. (1990).Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, issue 20.
Shaw, M. E. (1981). Group dynamics: the psychology of small group behavior. New York: McGraw Hill.
Scheidlinger, S. (1964). “Identification, the Sense of Belonging and of Identity in Small Groups.” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, volume 14
Schein, E. H. (1968). Organizational socialization and the profession of management. Industrial Management Review, issue 9.
Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist, volume 45.
Schein, Edgar (1969). Process Consultation. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Schein, Edgar (1980). Organizational Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Schein, Edgar (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, Edgar and Warren G. Bennis (1965). Personal and Organizational Change through Group Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Schon, D. A. (1979). “Generative Metaphor: A Perspective on Problem Setting in Social Policy.” in Ortony (ed.), Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Schutz, William C. (1958). FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Inter personal Behavior. New York: Holt and Rinehart.
Schón, P. A. (1979). Generative metaphor: A perspective on problem-setting in social policy. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Schonberger, R. J. (1982). The transfer of Japanese manufacturing management approaches to U.S. industry. Academy of Management Review, issue 7.
Schooler, C., & Naoi, A. (1988). The psychological effects of traditional and economically peripheral job settings in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, issue 94.
Schwartz, S. H. & Ames, R. E. (1977). Positive and negative referent others as sources or influence: a case of helping. Sociometry; issue 40.
Seashore, S. E. (1954). Group cohesiveness in the industrial work group. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Selvini Palazzoli, IN., L. Boscolo, G. Cecchin, and G. Prata (1978). Paradox and Counterparadox. New York: Jason Aronson.
Selznick, P. (1957). Leadership in Administration. Evanston, In.: Row, Peterson.
Sera,K. (1992). Corporate globalization: A new trend. Academy of Management Executive, volume 6
Shadish, W. R. (1984). “Intimate Behavior and the Assessment of Benefits in Clinical Groups.” Small Group Behavior, volume 15.
Shambaugh, P. (1978). “The Development of the Small Group.” Human Relations, volume 31, number. 3.
Shaw, M. E. (1976). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sherwood, I. (1964). “Bion’s Experiences in Groups: A Critical Evaluation”. Human Relations, volume 17.
Shotland, R. L. (1985). When bystanders just stand by. Psychology Today; June
Singer, David L, Boris En Astrachan, Lawrence J. Gould, and Edward B. Klein (1975). “Boundary Management in Psychological Work with Groups.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, volume 11.
Slater, Philip E. (1966). Microcosm: Structural, Psychological, and Religious Evolution in Groups. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Small, Albion 905). General Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Smith, Kenwyn K. (1977). “An Inter-group Perspective on Individual Behavior.” In Hackman, Lawler, and Porter (eds.), Perspective on Behavior in Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Smith, K. K. (1982). Groups in Conflict: Prisons in Disguise. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
Smith, K. K. (1989). “The Movement of Conflict in Organizations: The Joint Dynamics of Splitting and Triangulation.” Administrative Sciences Quarterly, volume 34.
Smith, Kenwyn, and David N. Berg (1987). Paradoxes of Group Life: Understanding Conflict, Paralysis, and Movement in Group Dynamics. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, P. B., & Misumi, J. (1989). Japanese management—A Sun rising in the west? En C. L. Cooper & 1. Robertson (Eds.), International review of organizational psychology 1989. London: Wiley.
Smith P. B., & Peterson, M. F. (1988). Leadership, Organizations and culture: An event management London: Sage.
Smith, R (1983). Japanese society: Tradition, self and the social order. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.
Srivastva, Suresh, and Frank Barrett (1988). “The Transforming Nature of Metaphors in Group Development: A Study in Group Theory.” Human Relations, volume 41.
Stein, H. F. (1991). Metaphors of organizational trauma and organizational development: A case example. Organization Development Journal, volume 9.
Steiner, I. (1972). Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press.
Stewart, L. P., Gudykunst, W. B., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1986). The effects of decision-making style on openness and satisfaction within Japanese organizations. Communication Monographs, issue 53.
Stock, Dorothy, and Morton A. Lieberman (1974). “Methodological Issues in the Assessment of Total-Group Phenomena in Group Therapy.” En Gibbard, Hartman, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stogdill, et. al.(1974). Handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press.
Stogdill, R. M. (1972). Group productivity, drive, and cohesiveness. Organizational behavior and human performance; volume 8.
Stoltenberg, C. D., and U. Delworth (1987). Supervising Counselors and Therapists: A Development Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stone, E. F. (1978). Research methods in organizational behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Stoner, J. A. (1968). Risky and cautious shifts in group decisions: the influence of widely held values. Journal of experimental social psychology; issue 4.
Sullivan, J. J., Suzuki, T., & Kondo, Y. (1987). Managerial perceptions of performance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, issue 17.
Sundstrom, E., De Meuse, K.P., & Futrell, D. (1990). Work teams: Applications and effectiveness. American Psychologist, volume 45.
Taira, K. (1970). Economic development and the labor market in Japan. New York: Columbia University Press
Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982). Social identity and inter-group relations. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Takahashi, N., &Takavanagi, S. (1985). Decision procedure models and empirical research: The Japanese experience Human Relations, volume 38
Takezawa, S. I., & Whitehill, A. M. (1981). Workway: Japan and America. Tokyo: Japan Institute of Labor.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The Principles of scientific management. New York: Norton.-
Thibaut, J. W., and H. H. Kelly (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Thomas, E. J. & Fink, C. J. (1963). The effects of group size. Psychological Bulletin; issue 60.
Tillich, Paul (1952). The Courage To Be. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Tobin, J., Wu, D., & Davidson, D. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Triandis, H. C. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of individualism and collectivism. En J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Trist,E. L., & Bamforth,K.W. (1951). Some social and psychological consequences of the long wall method of coal setting. Human Relations, issue 4.
Trist, E. L. (1985). “Working with Bion in the 1940s: The Group Decade.” In Pines (ed.), Bion and Group Psychotherapy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Trist, E. L., and K. W. Bramforth (1951). “Some Social and Psychological Consequences of Goal-Getting.” Human Relations, volume 4.
Trist, E. L., and C. Stofer (1959). Explorations in Group Relations. Leicester, England: Leicester University Press.
Tsoukas, H. (1991). The missing link: A transformational view of metaphors in organizational science. Academy of Management Review, issue 16.
Tuckman, Barry W. (1965). “Developmental Sequences in Small Groups.” Psychological Bulletin, volume 54.
Tuckman, Barry W., and IN. Jensen (1977). “Stages of Small Group Development Revisited.” Group and Organizational Studies, volume 2.
Turner, J. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self categorization theory. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell
Turquet, P. IN. (1974). “Leadership: The Individual and the Group.” En Gibbard Hartmann, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Van Steenberg, Vich, and Jonathon H. Gillette (1984). “Teaching Group Dynamics with a Group-on-Group Design.” Organizational Behavior Teaching Review, volume 9 number 3.
Wakabayashi, M., Graen, G., Graen, M. R., & Graen, M. (1988). Japanese management progress: Mobility into middle management. Journal of Applied Psychology, volume 73.
Walton, R. E. (1969). Interpersonal Peacemaking: Confrontation and Third Party Consultation. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Webber, R. H. (1969). Convergence or divergence. Columbia Journal of World Business, issue 4.
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Free Press.
Weber, M. (1958). Bureaucracy. In H. Gerth & C. W. Mills (Eds.), Max Weber: Essays in sociology. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Weeks, G. R., and L. L’Abate (1982). Paradoxical Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice with Individuals, Couples, and Families. New York: Brunner/Maze
Weir, J., and S. Weir (1978). Personal communication.
Weiss, A. G. (1987). “Privacy and Intimacy.” Journal of Human Psychology, volume 27, number 1.
Westney, D. E. (1987). Imitation and innovation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Wetzel, P. J. (1988). Are ‘powerless’ communication strategies the Japanese norm? Language and Society, issue 17.
Whenmouth, E. (1988). Is Japan’s corporate style changing? Some practices and attitudes that were unthinkable in Japan two decades ago are becoming commonplace. Industry Week, issue 237.
Whitaker, Dorothy Stock, and Morton A. Lieberman (1964). Psychotherapy through the Group Process. New York: Atherton.
White, R. K. (1959). “Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence.” Psychological Review, volume 66.
White, Robert W. (1963). “Identification as a Process of Development.” En “Ego and Reality in Psychoanalytic Theory: A Proposal Regarding Independent Ego Energies.” Psychological Issues, volume 3.
Whitehill, A. M. (1964). Cultural values and employee attitudes: United States and Japan. Journal of Applied Psychology, volume 48.
Whitehill, A. M., & Takezawa, S. (1961). Cultural values in management-worker relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Whitehill, A. M., & Takezawa, 5. (1968). The other worker. Honolulu: East-West Centre. 646 Kashima and Callan
Whitman, Roy (1964) “Psychodynamic Principles Underlying T-Group Processes.” En Gradford, Gibb, and Benne (eds.), T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Winnicott, D. (1953). “Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena.” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, volume 34.
Winter, S. (1974). “Inter-racial Dynamics in Self-Analytic Groups.” En Gibbard, Hartmann, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Worthy, J. C. (1950). Organizational structure and employee morale. American Sociological Review, volume 15.
Yalom, Irvin D. (1970). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Yazinuma, M., & Kennedy, R. (1986). Life is so simple when you know your place. Intersect. May
Yoshino, M. Y. (1968). Japan’s managerial system: Tradition and innovation. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Young, S. M. (1992). A framework for successful adoption and performance of Japanese manufacturing practices in the United States. Academy of Management Executive issue 17.
Yukl, G. H. (1989). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall.
Yum, Y. 0. (1988). The impact of Confucianism on interpersonal relationships and communication patterns in East Asia. Communication Monographs, issue 55.
Agradeceremos a los lectores toda contribución y aporte que puedan realizar a esta primer Bibliografía en español, en materia del comportamiento de “Grupos en las Organizaciones”.
